CAUSES OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION (SS6H6a)
Portugal is a small country on the Atlantic coast in southern Europe. During the fifteenth century, Portugal led the world in sea exploration. Beginning in 1415, and for nearly one hundred years, Portugal explored the western coast of Africa. The Portuguese wanted to find a route around Africa into the Indian Ocean. Goods brought over land from China and India were expensive. Europeans wanted Asian silks and spices, but they wanted to find a way to get them at a lower cost. The Portuguese believed that they could make a lot of money as traders if they could get Asian goods for a cheaper price. There were religious reasons to explore too. The Portuguese wanted to spread Christianity along Africa’s west coast. Prince Henry the Navigator was the son of the Portuguese king. He fought in a battle that helped capture Ceuta, a city on the north coast of Africa. The Moors had controlled Ceuta for hundreds of years. This gave Portugal an important outpost from which to explore Africa. Prince Henry became governor of Portugal’s southernmost coasts. He sent more than 50 expeditions down the west coast of Africa. Henry wanted to establish colonies and break the Muslim hold on trade routes. Henry studied navigation and mapmaking. He established a naval observatory. Students there learned navigation, astronomy and cartography (map making). Henry’s efforts advanced what Europeans knew about these sciences. Henry was unable to make money trading in gold, so he tried creating sugar cane plantations. One of his expeditions discovered the island of Madeira. The climate there was good for growing sugar cane, and he knew that it was a very profitable crop. It also required lots of labor. Henry imported slaves from Africa to work the fields. This plan became successful and was later copied in the New World. In fact, the expansion of the sugar cane economy encouraged a slave trade that lasted another four hundred years. The Portuguese also gained access to the Spice Islands. By 1513, Portuguese trade extended into China and Japan.
THE COLONIZATION OF AUSTRALIA BY THE UNITED KINGDOM (SS6H6c)
The first Europeans to sail into Australian waters arrived in 1606. To reach Australia from Europe, ships sailed south along the west African coast to the Cape of Good Hope and then turned east across the Indian Ocean. For nearly two hundred years, ships from several European nations sailed to the continent. In 1770, Captain James Cook charted the eastern Australian coast in his ship Endeavor. Following orders from British King George III, Cook claimed the east coast for Great Britain. Cook named eastern Australia “New South Wales.” The British mapped the coast of Africa, including the island of Tasmania. The independence of the thirteen American colonies led British to colonize Australia in 1788. Before American independence, the British sent prisoners to be colonists in the Georgia colony of America. Britain created a new penal (prison) colony by shipping prisoners from Great Britain to Australia. There were four main reasons for the British to colonize Australia. First, the British wanted to colonize Australia to relieve the overcrowding in Great Britain’s jails. Second, the British government recognized the importance of having its navy stationed in Australia in the southern hemisphere. The British viewed Australia as an economic base to expand trade. Finally, the British government did not want its rivals, especially the French, to start a colony on the Australian continent.
THE EMPIRES OF PORTUGAL, SPAIN, ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN ASIA, AFRICA, AND THE AMERICAS (SS6H6b)
The Crusades (1096 to 1272) were military expeditions sent by different Popes (leaders of the Roman Catholic Church) to capture the Holy Land from the Muslim Turks. Though the Crusades were not successful, one positive result was that the people of Western Europe learned how to draw better maps and build better ships. The Crusades also exposed the European Crusaders to desirable products of the East. Europeans and Asians created trade routes to bring products from the East to Europe. These benefits of the Crusades later contributed to the expansion of Portugal, Spain, England and France. By the fifteen century, the major trade routes from the East to Europe went to two Italian cities, Venice and Genoa. The Italian merchants marked up the prices on spices, precious jewels, fragrances, woods, and finished goods and sold them throughout Europe. Portugal, Spain, France and England resented the huge profits made by Venice and Genoa. Since Venice and Genoa controlled the trade routes through the Mediterranean Sea, the jealous European countries looked for another way to India, China and the Spice Islands.
The Empire of Portugal
Portugal established the earliest of the modern European colonial empires. The Portuguese empire lasted for centuries. It started with Prince Henry, the son of the king of Portugal. Henry sent Portuguese ships down the west coast of Africa. He wanted to find a route around the continent to India and China. Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa and discovered the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean. Vasco de Gama, another Portuguese explorer, later sailed around the cape. He continued on to India. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and trading posts. By 1751, a string of outposts connected Portugal with Africa, India, the south Pacific islands, and Japan. Portugal grew wealthy from its trade route around Africa to Asia. Its most profitable colony was Brazil in South America. Brazil was a Portuguese colony until 1822.
The Empire of Spain
Other explorers from Spain, France, and England searched for a route through or around North America and South America. They hoped to find a route that would lead them to the riches of the East. In the late 1490s, Christopher Columbus, an Italian, was given ships and men to try to find a passage across the Atlantic Ocean to Asia. It was later learned that Columbus had found entire continents that were unknown to the Europeans. Exploration and colonization of this “New World” gave Spain enormous wealth. The Spanish empire was one of the largest empires in history. Spanish conquistadors conquered the Inca and Aztec civilizations in the 1500s and brought home the wealth of these people. Spain claimed huge areas of North and South America and ruled parts of them for over three hundred years. Their empire stretched to Asia, where they controlled the Philippines until almost the twentieth century.
The Empire of England
At one time, England was one of three countries (England, Scotland and Wales) that shared an island. By the early 1700s, the three united as Great Britain. The British empire was the largest in history. At its peak, Great Britain controlled Canada, Australia, India, much of eastern Africa, and numerous islands across the world. North America came under the control of England and France during the eighteenth century. Great Britain won out over its European rivals – the Dutch, France, and Spain – in gaining control of North America. The United States became an independent country after a war that began in 1776. Great Britain maintained control over Canada, however, until the twentieth century. By the 1920s, one-fourth of the world’s population was under British control. It was said that “the sun never sets on the British empire.” This was because it was always daylight at some point in the British empire. After World War II, most of Great Britain’s territories and colonies became independent.
The Empire of France
From the 1600s to the 1900s, France was one of the world’s dominant empires. The French possessed colonies around the world. During the reign of Napoleon I, France dominated much of the European continent. By 1812, France controlled much of Germany, Italy, and Spain. Other parts of the French empire were originally established during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This included islands in the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, the South Pacific, the North Pacific, and the North Atlantic. France maintained influence in parts of Canada, South America, Southeast Asia, and Northwest Africa. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, only the British empire was larger than the empire of France.
The Empire of Portugal
Portugal established the earliest of the modern European colonial empires. The Portuguese empire lasted for centuries. It started with Prince Henry, the son of the king of Portugal. Henry sent Portuguese ships down the west coast of Africa. He wanted to find a route around the continent to India and China. Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa and discovered the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean. Vasco de Gama, another Portuguese explorer, later sailed around the cape. He continued on to India. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and trading posts. By 1751, a string of outposts connected Portugal with Africa, India, the south Pacific islands, and Japan. Portugal grew wealthy from its trade route around Africa to Asia. Its most profitable colony was Brazil in South America. Brazil was a Portuguese colony until 1822.
The Empire of Spain
Other explorers from Spain, France, and England searched for a route through or around North America and South America. They hoped to find a route that would lead them to the riches of the East. In the late 1490s, Christopher Columbus, an Italian, was given ships and men to try to find a passage across the Atlantic Ocean to Asia. It was later learned that Columbus had found entire continents that were unknown to the Europeans. Exploration and colonization of this “New World” gave Spain enormous wealth. The Spanish empire was one of the largest empires in history. Spanish conquistadors conquered the Inca and Aztec civilizations in the 1500s and brought home the wealth of these people. Spain claimed huge areas of North and South America and ruled parts of them for over three hundred years. Their empire stretched to Asia, where they controlled the Philippines until almost the twentieth century.
The Empire of England
At one time, England was one of three countries (England, Scotland and Wales) that shared an island. By the early 1700s, the three united as Great Britain. The British empire was the largest in history. At its peak, Great Britain controlled Canada, Australia, India, much of eastern Africa, and numerous islands across the world. North America came under the control of England and France during the eighteenth century. Great Britain won out over its European rivals – the Dutch, France, and Spain – in gaining control of North America. The United States became an independent country after a war that began in 1776. Great Britain maintained control over Canada, however, until the twentieth century. By the 1920s, one-fourth of the world’s population was under British control. It was said that “the sun never sets on the British empire.” This was because it was always daylight at some point in the British empire. After World War II, most of Great Britain’s territories and colonies became independent.
The Empire of France
From the 1600s to the 1900s, France was one of the world’s dominant empires. The French possessed colonies around the world. During the reign of Napoleon I, France dominated much of the European continent. By 1812, France controlled much of Germany, Italy, and Spain. Other parts of the French empire were originally established during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This included islands in the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean, the South Pacific, the North Pacific, and the North Atlantic. France maintained influence in parts of Canada, South America, Southeast Asia, and Northwest Africa. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, only the British empire was larger than the empire of France.
ORIGIN AND CULTURE OF THE ABORIGINES (SS6H8)
Aborigines are the native people of Australia. Just as Native Americans lived in North and South America before the European explorers, Aborigines lived in Australia. The Aborigines occupied Australia for at least 40,000 years. They arrived from Southeast Asia and entered the continent from the north. Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea were one large landmass at that time. The word aborigines means “the people who were here from the beginning.” The Aborigines developed efficient ways to adapt to the harsh Australian environment. Their way of life was slow to change. They built containers for storing water and built wells to connect with underground water. They were hunters and gatherers and ate animals, fruits, wild nuts and berries. They were nomadic, moving from place to place in search of food. Archaeology has revealed some Aboriginal inventions. Aborigines created some of the earliest rock art as well as the first boomerangs, ground axes, and grindstones in the world. There is no written record of prehistoric Aborigines. What we know of the ancient Aborigines is found in archaeological evidence. The Aborigines kept their history by telling stories that were passed down from generation to generation. Before the Europeans arrived in 1788, 250,000 to 500,000 people lived in Australia. The Aborigines settled in the same places as present-day Australians, where the climate was most pleasant and water was available. In the tropical north, most Aborigines lived along the coasts and rivers. Their religious structure was divided into two “moieties.” The moiety system divided all the members of a tribe into two groups based on a connection with “totems.” The totems were certain animals, plants, or other things in the environment. A person was born into a moiety group and stayed in that group throughout her or his life. A person in one moiety had to marry a person of an opposite moiety. The traditional social structure of the Aborigines consisted of a tribe or “language group” of as many as 500 people. A tribe included bands called “hordes,” of 10 to 20 people. Hordes joined for daily food gathering and hunting.
IMPACT OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION (SS6H9)
The first Europeans to sail into Australian waters arrived in 1606. During the next 164 years, ships from several nations reached the continent. In 1770, English captain James Cook claimed the Australian east coast for England when he landed at Botany Bay. This site is near the present-day city of Sydney. Cook named the eastern Australia “New South Wales.” English sailors mapped the coast of Australia and Tasmania.
Prisoners as colonists in Australia
The American Revolution resulted in independence of the American colonies from Great Britain. The Georgia colony in North America had been used as a penal (prison) colony for Great Britain at one time. After Great Britain lost colonies in North America, it began to look for other locations for prisoners. Australia seemed like a good choice. It had no colonies from other countries. There seemed to be few indigenous people, and it was in a region where Great Britain did not have any other colonies. From 1788 to 1823, the colony of New South Wales was officially a penal colony consisting mainly of convicts, marines, and the marines’ wives. About 20 percent of the first convicts were women. The British transported prisoners to Australia until 1868. By then, many free immigrants had settled in the region. They were building trading posts, farms, and businesses. Great Britain saw that Australia was a good location to base its navy in the South Pacific. Its location would make it possible for British ships to make repairs and get supplies. There were opportunities for trade between Asia, Australia, and the Americas. In addition, the British government did not want the French to get a foothold on the continent. The countries of Europe were jealous of one another. The Europeans believed that if their countries had colonies, they would be better off. Non prisoner colonization continued. Major coastal settlements became seven independent colonies. By 1861, officials created the boundaries between the colonies that are still used today. The Commonwealth of Australia was established on January 1, 1901. Melbourne served as the national capital until Canberra was completed in 1927.
European diseases and weapons
The British settlers had an immediate impact on Aboriginal life. European settlers took over good sources of water, fisheries and productive land. Settlers turned land used by the Aborigines into colonial towns, farms and mining operations. Some Aboriginal people welcomed the colonists. Some though they were the spirit of the dead. Others tried to protect their hunting lands and homes. The most damaging thing the Europeans brought were diseases. Smallpox, for instance, was a new disease for the Aborigines. They had no immunity to the disease. Smallpox began to sicken and kill large numbers of Aborigines. It is estimated that half of the indigenous people of Australia died of diseases brought by Europeans. The British guns gave the colonists a major advantage in fights. Many Aborigines living near settlements were killed or forced to leave. Those Aboriginal people who survived the British expansion often tried to remain near their original homeland. Others began to live on the edges of colonial settlements. The introduction of cattle and sheep to the area required that settlers build fences, clear trees and raise crops for the livestock, which changed the landscape. The lands that they used were the home of the Aborigines. The armed British were able to push aside the Aborigines and use their land. As the number of British settlements expanded, Aboriginal people turned to violence to protect their land. A gold rush in the 1850s attracted thousands of new settlers to Australia. That resulted in more conflicts with Aboriginal people and hundreds more deaths. In some areas, white farmers formed revenge groups. These groups responded to the killing of sheep and cattle by murdering Aboriginal women and children. In the remote outback, ranchers needed Aboriginal labor to work their cattle and sheep farms. Ranchers asked surviving local Aboriginal populations to work as stock men and domestic workers.
Prisoners as colonists in Australia
The American Revolution resulted in independence of the American colonies from Great Britain. The Georgia colony in North America had been used as a penal (prison) colony for Great Britain at one time. After Great Britain lost colonies in North America, it began to look for other locations for prisoners. Australia seemed like a good choice. It had no colonies from other countries. There seemed to be few indigenous people, and it was in a region where Great Britain did not have any other colonies. From 1788 to 1823, the colony of New South Wales was officially a penal colony consisting mainly of convicts, marines, and the marines’ wives. About 20 percent of the first convicts were women. The British transported prisoners to Australia until 1868. By then, many free immigrants had settled in the region. They were building trading posts, farms, and businesses. Great Britain saw that Australia was a good location to base its navy in the South Pacific. Its location would make it possible for British ships to make repairs and get supplies. There were opportunities for trade between Asia, Australia, and the Americas. In addition, the British government did not want the French to get a foothold on the continent. The countries of Europe were jealous of one another. The Europeans believed that if their countries had colonies, they would be better off. Non prisoner colonization continued. Major coastal settlements became seven independent colonies. By 1861, officials created the boundaries between the colonies that are still used today. The Commonwealth of Australia was established on January 1, 1901. Melbourne served as the national capital until Canberra was completed in 1927.
European diseases and weapons
The British settlers had an immediate impact on Aboriginal life. European settlers took over good sources of water, fisheries and productive land. Settlers turned land used by the Aborigines into colonial towns, farms and mining operations. Some Aboriginal people welcomed the colonists. Some though they were the spirit of the dead. Others tried to protect their hunting lands and homes. The most damaging thing the Europeans brought were diseases. Smallpox, for instance, was a new disease for the Aborigines. They had no immunity to the disease. Smallpox began to sicken and kill large numbers of Aborigines. It is estimated that half of the indigenous people of Australia died of diseases brought by Europeans. The British guns gave the colonists a major advantage in fights. Many Aborigines living near settlements were killed or forced to leave. Those Aboriginal people who survived the British expansion often tried to remain near their original homeland. Others began to live on the edges of colonial settlements. The introduction of cattle and sheep to the area required that settlers build fences, clear trees and raise crops for the livestock, which changed the landscape. The lands that they used were the home of the Aborigines. The armed British were able to push aside the Aborigines and use their land. As the number of British settlements expanded, Aboriginal people turned to violence to protect their land. A gold rush in the 1850s attracted thousands of new settlers to Australia. That resulted in more conflicts with Aboriginal people and hundreds more deaths. In some areas, white farmers formed revenge groups. These groups responded to the killing of sheep and cattle by murdering Aboriginal women and children. In the remote outback, ranchers needed Aboriginal labor to work their cattle and sheep farms. Ranchers asked surviving local Aboriginal populations to work as stock men and domestic workers.
THE IMPACT OF EUROPEAN CONTACT ON CANADA (SS6H4)
Influence on Language and Religion
The Europeans who settled Canada came mainly from Great Britain and France. The English and the French explored and established settlements across North America. They brought their languages and religions with them. Conquered Indian tribes were pushed aside, destroyed or isolated. In time, Canada came to be ruled by Great Britain. There were many French-speakers, however, in the province of Quebec. Religion was different in Quebec, too. Most of Canada was non-Catholic Christian. The French-speaking people of Quebec were mostly Roman Catholic. Great Britain got control of Canada in 1763 as a result of the French and Indian War. The British rule of Canada lasted into the twentieth century. During those years, settlers moved across the continent. The English-speakers of Canada stretched from coast to coast. Today, nearly 70 percent of Canadians speak English as their first language. English is one of the official languages of government and business in the country. The effects of French settlement remain, however. Although only 20 percent of the population speaks French as its first language, 81 percent of the people in Quebec have French as their first language. Only about 8 percent of Quebec’s citizens speak English as a first language. French is the official language of business and government in Quebec. Advertising can be in both French and English. However, the English portion must come after the French part, and the English words must be of smaller size. Because of the distinct society of French-speakers in the country, French is an official language of Canada. All government documents are written in French and English. Religion in Canada is a result of its history too. The French settlers were Roman Catholic. English settlers tended to be non-Catholic Christians. Today, about 80 percent of people in Quebec are Catholic. In Canada as a whole, the number is about 44 percent. Although other religions are practiced, the main religions are those that were brought from the mother countries.
How Canada became an independent nation
Great Britain colonized lands around the world. In North America, the thirteen colonies declared their independence and fought a war with Great Britain to secure it. They created the United States of America. Other colonies fought for their freedom, too. Some colonies were able to get their independence through peaceful means. Canada was one of those countries. Canada became part of Great Britain in 1763. This was a result of Great Britain’s defeat of France in the French and Indian War. The country expanded, and pioneers and settlers found ways to use the resources of the country. By the mid-1860s, people in Canada wanted to be united. They asked the British Parliament to create a constitution for self-government. Some Canadians worried that the United States might invade parts of Canada to gain new lands. The British North American Act of 1867 put together the provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Quebec, and the new constitution titled the country the Dominion of Canada. The country was allowed to have its own parliament and prime minister. It was not allowed to make treaties with other countries, and it had to be a part of the military with the United Kingdom (Great Britain and Northern Ireland). The monarch, king or queen, would be the same for Canada and Great Britain. This system worked well for many years. However, many Canadian soldiers were used by the United Kingdom in World War I. The loss of life was very high. Canadians decided they wanted more control in foreign affairs. After the war was over, Canadians began to work toward independence. In 1931, the British Parliament granted independence to Canada. It was 1982 before the final links were broken between the British Parliament and the Canadian government. The two countries still share the same monarch.
The Europeans who settled Canada came mainly from Great Britain and France. The English and the French explored and established settlements across North America. They brought their languages and religions with them. Conquered Indian tribes were pushed aside, destroyed or isolated. In time, Canada came to be ruled by Great Britain. There were many French-speakers, however, in the province of Quebec. Religion was different in Quebec, too. Most of Canada was non-Catholic Christian. The French-speaking people of Quebec were mostly Roman Catholic. Great Britain got control of Canada in 1763 as a result of the French and Indian War. The British rule of Canada lasted into the twentieth century. During those years, settlers moved across the continent. The English-speakers of Canada stretched from coast to coast. Today, nearly 70 percent of Canadians speak English as their first language. English is one of the official languages of government and business in the country. The effects of French settlement remain, however. Although only 20 percent of the population speaks French as its first language, 81 percent of the people in Quebec have French as their first language. Only about 8 percent of Quebec’s citizens speak English as a first language. French is the official language of business and government in Quebec. Advertising can be in both French and English. However, the English portion must come after the French part, and the English words must be of smaller size. Because of the distinct society of French-speakers in the country, French is an official language of Canada. All government documents are written in French and English. Religion in Canada is a result of its history too. The French settlers were Roman Catholic. English settlers tended to be non-Catholic Christians. Today, about 80 percent of people in Quebec are Catholic. In Canada as a whole, the number is about 44 percent. Although other religions are practiced, the main religions are those that were brought from the mother countries.
How Canada became an independent nation
Great Britain colonized lands around the world. In North America, the thirteen colonies declared their independence and fought a war with Great Britain to secure it. They created the United States of America. Other colonies fought for their freedom, too. Some colonies were able to get their independence through peaceful means. Canada was one of those countries. Canada became part of Great Britain in 1763. This was a result of Great Britain’s defeat of France in the French and Indian War. The country expanded, and pioneers and settlers found ways to use the resources of the country. By the mid-1860s, people in Canada wanted to be united. They asked the British Parliament to create a constitution for self-government. Some Canadians worried that the United States might invade parts of Canada to gain new lands. The British North American Act of 1867 put together the provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Quebec, and the new constitution titled the country the Dominion of Canada. The country was allowed to have its own parliament and prime minister. It was not allowed to make treaties with other countries, and it had to be a part of the military with the United Kingdom (Great Britain and Northern Ireland). The monarch, king or queen, would be the same for Canada and Great Britain. This system worked well for many years. However, many Canadian soldiers were used by the United Kingdom in World War I. The loss of life was very high. Canadians decided they wanted more control in foreign affairs. After the war was over, Canadians began to work toward independence. In 1931, the British Parliament granted independence to Canada. It was 1982 before the final links were broken between the British Parliament and the Canadian government. The two countries still share the same monarch.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (SS6H7a)
Before 1917, Russia was an autocracy. The czar was the absolute ruler. The last of the czars was Nicholas II. During World War I, Russia did not do so well. Millions of people were killed, wounded or missing. Citizens did not have enough food. Soldiers did not have enough clothes, shoes or weapons. Germany seemed to be winning the war. The czar ignored the signs that people were unhappy. He did not see that changes were needed in the way his country was run. In early 1917, there were riots in the streets. Women, factory workers, and farmers shouting for change outnumbered police. The military could not keep the peace. Many in the czar’s army turned against the rulers. The czar and his family were captured. A government was set up to try to run the country. However, there were too many problems. Later in the year, there was another revolution. Communists led by Vladmir Lenin took control. The czar and his family were executed. Lenin reorganized the country and renamed it the Soviet Union. The new Soviet Union signed a peace treaty with Germany. The Soviets gave up a large amount of land to Germany. This land was good for farming and had many natural resources. The Soviets had little choice. Their country was falling apart around them.
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES (SS6H7a)
Versailles is a grand palace outside the city of Paris, France. At the end of World War I, leaders from the countries involved in the war there met to write a treaty. The Treaty of Versailles explained what the winners would gain and what the losers would lose. Many of the leaders of the winning countries blamed Germany for the war. They wanted the Germans punished severely. Germany lost important territory, including lands rich in natural resources. It also lost all of its colonies. Germany Emperor Wilhelm II was to be put on trial for war crimes. France and Great Britain wanted to be sure that Germany could not attack them again. Their goal was to make Germany a weak country. Germany had to reduce the size of its army and navy. France lost a lot in the war. Over 2 million French people lost their lives. A large part of the war was fought in France. Farms, homes, cities and industries were destroyed. Highways, bridges, and railroads had to be rebuilt. The Allies added a part to the treaty that said Germany had to pay a large amount of money. This money was used to repay civilians who lost property because of the war.
WORLDWIDE DEPRESSION (SS6H7a)
After World War I, most countries in the world began to prosper. Americans enjoyed a time called “the Roaring Twenties.” People felt good about the economy. They believed that they had a chance to do well. In 1929, the good times ended. In the fall of 1929, the United States experienced a stock market crash. The value of stocks (share of ownership) people held in companies began a steep and quick drop. Stockholders realized that they were in danger of losing everything they owned. They began to sell their stocks as fast as they could. Since there were more sellers than buyers, the prices continued to fall. Businesses found they could no longer sell their goods because people had less money to spend. The businesses could not pay their debts. When businesses could not pay their debts, they had to close. This meant workers lost their jobs. These events happened so quickly that a panic occurred. People tried to get to their banks to get their money, and they tried to sell their stocks for any amount they could get. Panic selling and a “run on the banks” caused the economy of the United States to come to a halt. Farmers who could not get money to pay their loans lost their farms. Businesses around the world traded with America. When the United States stopped buying goods, it hurt businesses in other countries. When U.S. banks closed, banks in other countries were hurt too. Stockholders in other countries began to sell their stocks for low prices. They could not sell their stocks in American companies for any price. What followed was a worldwide economic depression. As businesses and factories closed one by one, buying and selling almost stopped.
RISE OF NAZISM (SS6H7a)
Germany faced many problems after World War I. It had lost lands that contained valuable natural resources. About 2 ½ million Germans had lost their lives. About 4 million were wounded. The industry and farms in the country had been destroyed. Highways, bridges, and railroads had to be rebuilt. The German government worked to solve the country’s problems. However, the country had another obstacle. It had to pay back the Allied countries for the war. Millions of dollars were leaving Germany for France and Britain. Germany was forbidden to have a large army or navy, so many military people lost their jobs. Prices went up as goods became scarce. Basic items such as food and clothing were not always available. Men had trouble finding jobs to support their families. As things got worse, people blamed the government. They wanted their leaders to find solutions to their problems. Then, the stock market crashed in the United States. This made conditions even worse for Germans. Businesses and people around the world stopped buying as much. They worried about losing their money. Adolf Hitler came on the scene with a big plan. He and his followers, called National Socialist or Nazi Party, said they could fix the problems in Germany. They blamed the Treaty of Versailles for many of the problems. They also said that Jews in the country were controlling the banks and money. They blamed Jews for the fact that many Germans were not able to make a good living. Hitler was named chancellor of Germany in 1933. He made sure that laws were quickly passed to give him more power. Soon he had complete control of the government. He had the powers of a dictator. He and the Nazis began the work to rebuild Germany’s military. He opened factories to build weapons. He put unemployed people to work by building a superior highway system. The economy improved for a time, but people lost many of their civil rights. However, many decided that it was better to lose rights than go without food. The Nazis continued to build their military power. Germans who spoke against them were put in prison or murdered. As Hitler’s strength grew, he made plans to go to war. In 1936, Hitler sent troops into some of Germany’s former territory. By 1938, German troops controlled Austria and Czechoslovakia. Other European countries protested, but did nothing to stop Hitler. In 1939, Germany invaded Poland. With that, France and Great Britain decided something must be done. They declared war on Germany, and World War II began.
THE HOLOCAUST (SS6H7b)
As part of Hitler’s plan to conquer the world, he began the systematic killing of every Jew – man, woman, or child – under Nazi rule. The Nazis imprisoned Jews in certain sections of cities, made them wear special identifying armbands, and separated them from their families. This was only the beginning. The Nazis build concentration camps and sent Jews from the cities by railcar to these camps. When the Jews arrived, their heads were shaved and a number was tattooed onto their arms. Many were immediately herded into showers, which were nothing more than gas chambers. In such places, as many as 2,000 people could be killed at one time. Thousands died from forced labor, little food, and exposure to the summer heat and winter cold. By the time World War II was over, as many as 6 million Jews were dead. Other groups were Hitler’s victims as well. He targeted anyone he felt was inferior: political prisoners, the mentally ill, and the disabled. Genocide, the planned killing of a race of people, became a crime when the United Nations passed the Genocide Convention in 1948. At the end of World War II, when the Allies gained control of the camps, the survivors of the Holocaust had no place to go. Many had no living family members. They were trapped in the country of their oppressors. The Jews wanted a state in Palestine, their ancient homeland in the Middle East. In 1947, the United Nations divided Palestine in to an Arab state and a Jewish state, Israel. Israel officially opened its borders to Jews in 1948.
THE COLD WAR (SS6H7b)
Beginning in 1945, the Cold War was a period of distrust and misunderstanding between the Soviet Union and it former allies in the West, particularly the United States. The Soviet Union was a communist country that believed a powerful central government should control the economy as well as the government. This idea was very different from the democracy and capitalism found in the United States. The United States believed that businesses should be privately owed. After World War II, Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin placed most of the Eastern European countries under communist control. The United States led the Western Bloc countries of Western Europe. The line separating the two was called the “Iron Curtain.” Another problem of the Cold War was the division of Germany. At the end of the war, the Allies divided Germany into four sections to keep it from regaining power. The United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union each controlled a section. In 1948, the Western Allies wanted to reunite Germany, but the Soviets disagreed. The Soviets declared their section of the country “East Germany;” the reunited sections became West Germany. Even the capital of Berlin in East Germany was divided into East and West. Tensions grew. In 1961, communist leaders built the Berlin Wall. It separated the communist part of the city from the free sections. Some countries under communist rule tried to break away from the Soviet Union, but the Soviets sent the military into these countries to keep them in line. Each side in this Cold War thought the other was trying to rule the world. Neither side gave up, and people lived in fear that another world war might erupt. People worried that if such a war happened, it would be a nuclear war. Such a war would be a disaster for everyone on the earth. Countries formed new alliances to protect themselves. In 1949, the western European countries plus the United States and Canada formed the North American Treaty Organization (NATO). The eastern countries signed the Warsaw Pact.
RISE OF THE SUPERPOWERS (SS6H7b)
As the Cold War continued, the United States and Soviet Union increased their area of influence. More countries allied with each. The United States and the Soviet Union had the ability to influence world events and project worldwide power. The countries were evenly matched. The world took sides, communist or democracy, socialist or free market. The Soviets had a permanent seat on the UN Security Council. They influenced other communist countries and dictatorships around the world. The Soviets occupied the largest country in the world. The Soviet Union had the third-largest population in the world and the second-largest economy. The Soviets had military and space technology, a worldwide spy network (the KGB), and one of the largest stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the world. The third-largest country in the world, the United States, also had a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and strong ties with Western Europe and Latin America. The fourth most populated country, the United States supported undeveloped countries and developing democratic ones. The United States had powerful military support from NATO, the largest navy in the world, and bases all over the world, even bordering the Warsaw Pact countries. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) spent money to spy on the Soviet Union. The United States had a large reserve of nuclear weapons. The Soviet Union was spending more and more of its money putting down revolts within its borders, and keeping up with the United States in the arms race. By 1985, the economy was so unstable that Mikhail Gorbachev, the head of the Soviet Union, reduced government control of business and increased freedoms for Soviet citizens. These actions helped to improve relations with the United States and inspired people in other Eastern Bloc countries to demand freedom from communist rule. In November 1989, the Berlin Wall was torn down, and Germany began the process of unifying. People around the world celebrated. East and West Germany were made one country in 1990. The Cold War was over. The Soviet republics that had once been separate countries began seeking their independence too. Many countries were created from the former Soviet Union. Russia was the largest.
THE IMPACT OF EUROPEAN EMPIRE BUILDING IN AFRICA AND ASIA ON THE OUTBREAK OF WORLD WAR I (SS6H6d)
During the late nineteenth century, several European countries wanted more oversees land. These countries were Great Britain, France, Portugal, Spain, Denmark, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. The result was a “Scramble for Africa” between 1885 and 1910. During this period, several European countries divided the continent of Africa among themselves. Economic development played a large role in the colonization of Africa. During the nineteenth century, factories in Europe required raw materials to manufacture finished products. The Europeans looked for new sources of raw materials and markets for their goods. Gold, diamonds, and oil were some of the resources the Europeans wanted. Asia and Africa had those resources. Politics also led to the colonization of Africa. Some European nations showed national pride by competing for colonies in Africa. No major nation – including Great Britain, France and Germany – wanted to be without colonies. Colonies in Africa and Asia made the Europeans feel pride in their country. Another reason for colonizing was the European worldview. Many nineteenth-century Europeans viewed themselves as the world’s most advanced civilization. Some felt it necessary to “civilize” people in the rest of the world. Increased activity by African missionaries helped make colonization seem less offensive to citizens in Europe. This scramble for land also reached farther into Asia. Many Asian territories saw a change from Europe as trading partner to Europe as conqueror. Great Britain, for instance, took control of India. France controlled lands in Southeast Asia, including Vietnam. The British fought for control of other lands like Burma, Laos, Siam and Cambodia. Nationalism (the love of one’s country) and militarism (using strong armies and threats of war) were on the rise in Europe. European countries signed treaties agreeing to help one another in case of attack. In 1914, a series of events caused Germany to declare war on Russia and France. On the other side, the British joined France and Russia and formed the Allied Powers. Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey and its colonies), and Bulgaria joined the Germans as the Central Powers. Because these countries were large and controlled lands around the world, the war was called the Great War. Later, the United States became involved on the side of the Allied Powers. The war lasted until 1918, and an estimated 10 million people died. Some believed it was “the war to end all wars.” Unfortunately, just twenty years later, Europe would be at the center of an even bigger conflict. The Great War became known as World War I. The later, larger conflict became known as World War II.
CAUSES OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION (SS6H6a)
Portugal is a small country on the Atlantic coast in southern Europe. During the fifteenth century, Portugal led the world in sea exploration. Beginning in 1415, and for nearly one hundred years, Portugal explored the western coast of Africa. The Portuguese wanted to find a route around Africa into the Indian Ocean. Goods brought over land from China and India were expensive. Europeans wanted Asian silks and spices, but they wanted to find a way to get them at a lower cost. The Portuguese believed that they could make a lot of money as traders if they could get Asian goods for a cheaper price. There were religious reasons to explore too. The Portuguese wanted to spread Christianity along Africa’s west coast. Prince Henry the Navigator was the son of the Portuguese king. He fought in a battle that helped capture Ceuta, a city on the north coast of Africa. The Moors had controlled Ceuta for hundreds of years. This gave Portugal an important outpost from which to explore Africa. Prince Henry became governor of Portugal’s southernmost coasts. He sent more than 50 expeditions down the west coast of Africa. Henry wanted to establish colonies and break the Muslim hold on trade routes. Henry studied navigation and mapmaking. He established a naval observatory. Students there learned navigation, astronomy and cartography (map making). Henry’s efforts advanced what Europeans knew about these sciences. Henry was unable to make money trading in gold, so he tried creating sugar cane plantations. One of his expeditions discovered the island of Madeira. The climate there was good for growing sugar cane, and he knew that it was a very profitable crop. It also required lots of labor. Henry imported slaves from Africa to work the fields. This plan became successful and was later copied in the New World. In fact, the expansion of the sugar cane economy encouraged a slave trade that lasted another four hundred years. The Portuguese also gained access to the Spice Islands. By 1513, Portuguese trade extended into China and Japan.
THE IMPACT OF THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE ON LATIN AMERICA AND EUROPE (SS6H1b)
jChristopher Columbus “discovered” the New World in 1492. This event started an exchange between the Old World (Europe) and the New World (the Americas). As the Spanish spread their empire, the indigenous population (or native people) began to decline. The Europeans introduced Africans in the New World as slaves. The Africans also became a part of this exchange. Today we know this as the Columbian Exchange, since it began as a result of Columbus’s discovery. One important part of the Columbian Exchange was the exchange of food plants. Cocoa, corn, potatoes, peppers and tomatoes grew in Central and South America. The Spanish and Portuguese discovered these foods and took them back to Europe. European crops brought from Europe and Africa to the New World included coffee, peaches, sugar, and wheat. Farming changed in the New World. Large plantations with slave labor were started. Sugar cane was one important plantation crop. The indigenous population was defeated by diseases that were also part of the Columbian exchange. The Europeans brought with them many diseases that the native people had not seen before. Their bodies did not have immunity (natural resistance) to the diseases, and their healers did not know how to treat the diseases. Some of the diseases brought to the New World were influenza, smallpox and typhoid fever. Between 50 and 75 percent of the population of some native tribes may have lost their lives to these diseases. Europeans introduced certain animals to the New World. These included pigs, cows, goats and bees. The horse was a culture-changing animal. It allowed native people to travel further and faster.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN FROM EUROPEAN COLONIES TO INDEPENDENT NATIONS (SS6H2c)
The governments of Spain and Portugal ruled most of Latin America for nearly three hundred years. In that time, there were numerous battles for control of the lands. At times, the people who were being ruled by the Europeans grew restless. They thought about what it would be like to be free. The American Revolution in 1776 gave some in Latin America the idea that they too could be free. In 1789, the French Revolution showed that the kings and queens of Europe could be overcome. These events encouraged Latin Americans in the belief that they might be able to overcome their European rulers.
Toussaint L’Ouverture
Toussaint L’Ouverture was a famous black freedom fighter. He was a major leader of the slave revolts in Saint Domingue (present day Haiti). He was later made governor of Saint Domingue. Francois-Domingue Toussaint was born a slave in the mid-1700s. His father had been a free African who was captured and sold into slavery in Saint Domingue. He told his son about freedom and what life was like before his capture. Toussaint was lucky because the plantation owner allowed him to learn to read and write. Toussaint read every book that he could. Some of these books had ideas about freedom and equality for all men. In 1789, the French revolution occurred. The new government in France granted freedom for all blacks and mulattoes (those with African and European ancestors). However, the plantation owners in Saint Domingue were furious. In 1791, the French government changed its mind and took back the freedom it had given to black and mulattoes. This time, the slaves were furious. Toussaint led a slave army and defeated the French troops. By 1793, the French government abolished slavery altogether. Toussaint then led his men against invading British and Spanish troops. During this time, he was nicknamed Toussaint L’Ouverture, or “opening” because he seemed to be able to find openings in the defenses of his enemies. In the end, Toussaint L’Ouverture was left in charge of Saint Domingue even though it was officially a French colony. In 1802, the French emperor Napoleon sent troops to regain control. Some thought that he also wanted to reinstate slavery. Toussaint L’Ouverture was invited to a meeting with a French general to discuss a peace treaty. Instead, Toussaint was captured, arrested, and sent to France. He was imprisoned and died shortly after. Within two years, the people of Saint Dominigue declared their independence and renamed their country Haiti.
Simon Bolivar
Simon Bolivar was a leader in the wars for independence in South America. He and other leaders fought against Spanish rule. They wanted independence for all the people in Latin America. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru and Venezuela won their independence through his efforts. Bolivar was born in 1783, in Caracas, which is now Venezuela. He was from a wealthy family. He had an excellent education and read many books with ideas on freedom and equality. He lived at the time of the French Revolution and through that learned of the defeat of the French royal family. From 1810 to 1824, Bolivar led different groups of troops against Spanish rule. He fought in the lands that are now Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama. He was able to finally defeat the Spanish in 1824 and end Spanish rule in South America. The country of Bolivia was named for Bolivar, and he wrote a constitution to organize the country. Bolivar is known as “The Liberator” in South America. He is also sometimes called the “George Washington of South America.” He became dictator and tried to create a single, large South American country called Gran Colombia. It covered the entire northern part of South America. Fights among different groups caused the different countries to break up. Bolivar became infected with tuberculosis and died from the disease in 1830.
Miguel Hidalgo
Miguel Hidalgo is known as the father of Mexican independence. He was a priest who led a peasant army against the Spanish army in Mexico, which was then called New Spain. His force won some victories, but Hidalgo did not live to see independence. Hidalgo was born in 1753. His family saw that there was not equality for the peasant workers in Mexico. He saw that those born in Spain got special treatment, compared to citizens born in Mexico. After training to be a priest, he worked among the native people and peasants. In 1808, France invaded Spain, and the king was removed. This created problems in Mexico. People were not sure they supported the new French government. Others did not support the old Spanish government. A third group thought it was time for Mexico to be independent. Hidalgo and his friends were for the third choice. In 1810, Hidalgo was warned that he was going to be arrested. Those loyal to the French government turned him in. On September 16, instead of running away, he ran to his church and rang the bell. People from the countryside came in. Instead of having a church service, the people got a speech. In this speech, Hidalgo said it was time for Mexico to be free. At first, thousands of people followed Hidalgo. They won several victories against the Spanish army. However, they did not have training, and they did not have many weapons. Eventually, the Spanish army pulled its forces together and mounted an attack. They defeated a group of the rebels and captured Hidalgo. He was tried for treason and found guilty. He was executed by Spanish soldiers on July 30, 1811, but the war for independence continued. Mexico did not win its independence for another ten years. In 1821, Spain withdrew the last of its troops from Mexico.
Toussaint L’Ouverture
Toussaint L’Ouverture was a famous black freedom fighter. He was a major leader of the slave revolts in Saint Domingue (present day Haiti). He was later made governor of Saint Domingue. Francois-Domingue Toussaint was born a slave in the mid-1700s. His father had been a free African who was captured and sold into slavery in Saint Domingue. He told his son about freedom and what life was like before his capture. Toussaint was lucky because the plantation owner allowed him to learn to read and write. Toussaint read every book that he could. Some of these books had ideas about freedom and equality for all men. In 1789, the French revolution occurred. The new government in France granted freedom for all blacks and mulattoes (those with African and European ancestors). However, the plantation owners in Saint Domingue were furious. In 1791, the French government changed its mind and took back the freedom it had given to black and mulattoes. This time, the slaves were furious. Toussaint led a slave army and defeated the French troops. By 1793, the French government abolished slavery altogether. Toussaint then led his men against invading British and Spanish troops. During this time, he was nicknamed Toussaint L’Ouverture, or “opening” because he seemed to be able to find openings in the defenses of his enemies. In the end, Toussaint L’Ouverture was left in charge of Saint Domingue even though it was officially a French colony. In 1802, the French emperor Napoleon sent troops to regain control. Some thought that he also wanted to reinstate slavery. Toussaint L’Ouverture was invited to a meeting with a French general to discuss a peace treaty. Instead, Toussaint was captured, arrested, and sent to France. He was imprisoned and died shortly after. Within two years, the people of Saint Dominigue declared their independence and renamed their country Haiti.
Simon Bolivar
Simon Bolivar was a leader in the wars for independence in South America. He and other leaders fought against Spanish rule. They wanted independence for all the people in Latin America. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru and Venezuela won their independence through his efforts. Bolivar was born in 1783, in Caracas, which is now Venezuela. He was from a wealthy family. He had an excellent education and read many books with ideas on freedom and equality. He lived at the time of the French Revolution and through that learned of the defeat of the French royal family. From 1810 to 1824, Bolivar led different groups of troops against Spanish rule. He fought in the lands that are now Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama. He was able to finally defeat the Spanish in 1824 and end Spanish rule in South America. The country of Bolivia was named for Bolivar, and he wrote a constitution to organize the country. Bolivar is known as “The Liberator” in South America. He is also sometimes called the “George Washington of South America.” He became dictator and tried to create a single, large South American country called Gran Colombia. It covered the entire northern part of South America. Fights among different groups caused the different countries to break up. Bolivar became infected with tuberculosis and died from the disease in 1830.
Miguel Hidalgo
Miguel Hidalgo is known as the father of Mexican independence. He was a priest who led a peasant army against the Spanish army in Mexico, which was then called New Spain. His force won some victories, but Hidalgo did not live to see independence. Hidalgo was born in 1753. His family saw that there was not equality for the peasant workers in Mexico. He saw that those born in Spain got special treatment, compared to citizens born in Mexico. After training to be a priest, he worked among the native people and peasants. In 1808, France invaded Spain, and the king was removed. This created problems in Mexico. People were not sure they supported the new French government. Others did not support the old Spanish government. A third group thought it was time for Mexico to be independent. Hidalgo and his friends were for the third choice. In 1810, Hidalgo was warned that he was going to be arrested. Those loyal to the French government turned him in. On September 16, instead of running away, he ran to his church and rang the bell. People from the countryside came in. Instead of having a church service, the people got a speech. In this speech, Hidalgo said it was time for Mexico to be free. At first, thousands of people followed Hidalgo. They won several victories against the Spanish army. However, they did not have training, and they did not have many weapons. Eventually, the Spanish army pulled its forces together and mounted an attack. They defeated a group of the rebels and captured Hidalgo. He was tried for treason and found guilty. He was executed by Spanish soldiers on July 30, 1811, but the war for independence continued. Mexico did not win its independence for another ten years. In 1821, Spain withdrew the last of its troops from Mexico.
THE IMPACT OF THE CUBAN REVOLUTION (SS6H3a)
Cuba is an island nation located ninety miles south of Florida. For most of the twentieth century, it had political problems. Leaders came to power and then were thrown out by others. At the same time, American businesses were trading with Cuba. American companies owned a large amount of land in the country. Most of Cuba’s sugar cane crop was sold to America. In the late 1950s, a change in leadership took place there. Fidel Castro became dictator, creating the only communist country in the western hemisphere. Castro’s power was such that he ruled for nearly fifty years. In the late 1950s, Fulgencio Batista was ruler of Cuba. He had been elected president at one time, but he later made himself dictator. That meant that he ruled without any controls on his power. Many people in Cuba were unhappy with his rule. There was much poverty. Education and health care were not good for most Cubans. Fidel Castro led a group of rebels against Batista. Because Batista was so unpopular, many followed Castro. Castro defeated the Batista government and made himself dictator in 1959. Castro began right away to organize a communist government. He declared that all the property belonging to Americans now belonged to the government. All farms, factories, and businesses owned by Cubans also became government property. Castro had people who supported Batista arrested. Most were executed by firing squad. Some spent decades in prison. Cubans no longer had the right to protest against the government. Cuban newspapers, radio, and television were shut down. The government became the only source for news. Churches were closed, and all church property was taken by the government. Because of these harsh events, the United States placed an embargo on Cuban goods. That meant that Cuba’s sugar cane crop could not be sold to the United States. The Soviet Union became friends with Cuba. They bought the country’s sugar cane each year. They also supplied weapons and other goods to the Cubans. The soviets helped to educate young Cubans and trained their military. Under Castro’s rule, the Cuban people had some benefits. Hospitals and schools were improved. Women and blacks became better educated and had better jobs. However, most parts of people’s lives were controlled by the government. People who practiced their Christian religion were discriminated against. Although everyone was guaranteed a wage, the incomes of most Cubans were low. The country was one of the poorest in the region. Its people lived in one of the least free countries in the world. Castro’s government and the U.S. government did not get along well. The United States did not like having a communist country so close to Florida. Americans who owned land and businesses in Cuba did not like the loss of their property. The United States decided to keep the pressure on Cuba. It did not allow travel by Americans to or from Cuba. It also tried to keep other countries from trading with the Cubans. Cuba tried to spread communism into Latin America. It supported revolutionary ideas in many countries by providing military training, money, and weapons. One event, the Cuban Missile Crisis, almost started a nuclear war. In 1962, Cuba gave the Soviet Union permission to build a missile launching complex. Missiles launched from the site could reach U.S. cities. U.S. President John F. Kennedy demanded the missiles be removed. A tense time followed. Finally, the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles, and the United States said it would not invade Cuba. Relations between the United States and Cuba have not improved much in the past fifty years. There is still an embargo on goods from Cuba. Americans, however, can send money to their families in Cuba. In the early 1980s and again in the 1990s, there were periods in which large numbers of Cubans escaped their island for America. The United States had been accepting Cubans who escaped. However, thousands were being “allowed” to escape. This caused a strain on relations between the two countries. In 1994, the United States agreed to allow 20,000 Cubans a year to enter the United States. The Cubans agreed to stop allowing so many Cubans to “escape.”
IMPACT OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION (SS6H9)
he first Europeans to sail into Australian waters arrived in 1606. During the next 164 years, ships from several nations reached the continent. In 1770, English captain James Cook claimed the Australian east coast for England when he landed at Botany Bay. This site is near the present-day city of Sydney. Cook named the eastern Australia “New South Wales.” English sailors mapped the coast of Australia and Tasmania.
Prisoners as colonists in Australia
The American Revolution resulted in independence of the American colonies from Great Britain. The Georgia colony in North America had been used as a penal (prison) colony for Great Britain at one time. After Great Britain lost colonies in North America, it began to look for other locations for prisoners. Australia seemed like a good choice. It had no colonies from other countries. There seemed to be few indigenous people, and it was in a region where Great Britain did not have any other colonies. From 1788 to 1823, the colony of New South Wales was officially a penal colony consisting mainly of convicts, marines, and the marines’ wives. About 20 percent of the first convicts were women. The British transported prisoners to Australia until 1868. By then, many free immigrants had settled in the region. They were building trading posts, farms, and businesses. Great Britain saw that Australia was a good location to base its navy in the South Pacific. Its location would make it possible for British ships to make repairs and get supplies. There were opportunities for trade between Asia, Australia, and the Americas. In addition, the British government did not want the French to get a foothold on the continent. The countries of Europe were jealous of one another. The Europeans believed that if their countries had colonies, they would be better off. Non prisoner colonization continued. Major coastal settlements became seven independent colonies. By 1861, officials created the boundaries between the colonies that are still used today. The Commonwealth of Australia was established on January 1, 1901. Melbourne served as the national capital until Canberra was completed in 1927.
European diseases and weapons
The British settlers had an immediate impact on Aboriginal life. European settlers took over good sources of water, fisheries and productive land. Settlers turned land used by the Aborigines into colonial towns, farms and mining operations. Some Aboriginal people welcomed the colonists. Some though they were the spirit of the dead. Others tried to protect their hunting lands and homes. The most damaging thing the Europeans brought were diseases. Smallpox, for instance, was a new disease for the Aborigines. They had no immunity to the disease. Smallpox began to sicken and kill large numbers of Aborigines. It is estimated that half of the indigenous people of Australia died of diseases brought by Europeans. The British guns gave the colonists a major advantage in fights. Many Aborigines living near settlements were killed or forced to leave. Those Aboriginal people who survived the British expansion often tried to remain near their original homeland. Others began to live on the edges of colonial settlements. The introduction of cattle and sheep to the area required that settlers build fences, clear trees and raise crops for the livestock, which changed the landscape. The lands that they used were the home of the Aborigines. The armed British were able to push aside the Aborigines and use their land. As the number of British settlements expanded, Aboriginal people turned to violence to protect their land. A gold rush in the 1850s attracted thousands of new settlers to Australia. That resulted in more conflicts with Aboriginal people and hundreds more deaths. In some areas, white farmers formed revenge groups. These groups responded to the killing of sheep and cattle by murdering Aboriginal women and children. In the remote outback, ranchers needed Aboriginal labor to work their cattle and sheep farms. Ranchers asked surviving local Aboriginal populations to work as stockmen and domestic workers.
Prisoners as colonists in Australia
The American Revolution resulted in independence of the American colonies from Great Britain. The Georgia colony in North America had been used as a penal (prison) colony for Great Britain at one time. After Great Britain lost colonies in North America, it began to look for other locations for prisoners. Australia seemed like a good choice. It had no colonies from other countries. There seemed to be few indigenous people, and it was in a region where Great Britain did not have any other colonies. From 1788 to 1823, the colony of New South Wales was officially a penal colony consisting mainly of convicts, marines, and the marines’ wives. About 20 percent of the first convicts were women. The British transported prisoners to Australia until 1868. By then, many free immigrants had settled in the region. They were building trading posts, farms, and businesses. Great Britain saw that Australia was a good location to base its navy in the South Pacific. Its location would make it possible for British ships to make repairs and get supplies. There were opportunities for trade between Asia, Australia, and the Americas. In addition, the British government did not want the French to get a foothold on the continent. The countries of Europe were jealous of one another. The Europeans believed that if their countries had colonies, they would be better off. Non prisoner colonization continued. Major coastal settlements became seven independent colonies. By 1861, officials created the boundaries between the colonies that are still used today. The Commonwealth of Australia was established on January 1, 1901. Melbourne served as the national capital until Canberra was completed in 1927.
European diseases and weapons
The British settlers had an immediate impact on Aboriginal life. European settlers took over good sources of water, fisheries and productive land. Settlers turned land used by the Aborigines into colonial towns, farms and mining operations. Some Aboriginal people welcomed the colonists. Some though they were the spirit of the dead. Others tried to protect their hunting lands and homes. The most damaging thing the Europeans brought were diseases. Smallpox, for instance, was a new disease for the Aborigines. They had no immunity to the disease. Smallpox began to sicken and kill large numbers of Aborigines. It is estimated that half of the indigenous people of Australia died of diseases brought by Europeans. The British guns gave the colonists a major advantage in fights. Many Aborigines living near settlements were killed or forced to leave. Those Aboriginal people who survived the British expansion often tried to remain near their original homeland. Others began to live on the edges of colonial settlements. The introduction of cattle and sheep to the area required that settlers build fences, clear trees and raise crops for the livestock, which changed the landscape. The lands that they used were the home of the Aborigines. The armed British were able to push aside the Aborigines and use their land. As the number of British settlements expanded, Aboriginal people turned to violence to protect their land. A gold rush in the 1850s attracted thousands of new settlers to Australia. That resulted in more conflicts with Aboriginal people and hundreds more deaths. In some areas, white farmers formed revenge groups. These groups responded to the killing of sheep and cattle by murdering Aboriginal women and children. In the remote outback, ranchers needed Aboriginal labor to work their cattle and sheep farms. Ranchers asked surviving local Aboriginal populations to work as stockmen and domestic workers.